Introduction Chapter 1
1. Anatomy: structure
Physiology: function and mechanics
2. Homeostasis: state of maintaining an internal balance
3. Set point: determined by the control center; level of the range of maintenance;
determines appropriate response
4. Negative feedback loop: response made to re-establish the set point
5. Positive feedback: produces a cascade effect and accelerates the effect
Chemistry Chapter 2
1. Matter: occupies space and has weight; does not vary
2. Element: substances that cannot be broken down further into simpler substances
3. Periodic Table: chart of the elements displayed according to their characteristic properties
4. Atom: smallest unit of an element
5. Parts of an atom: nucleus (protons with positive charge; neutrons with zero charge) and
electrons with negative charge.
6. Symbol: chemical shorthand for naming each element
Atomic number: number of protons in an atom of an element; determines
the properties of that element.
Atomic mass: weight of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
Isotope: atoms with same atomic number with different t atomic weights
7. Electron orbitals: path of electrons around the nucleus; orbital limits for
electrons: 2, 1st shell, 8, second shell, 8, 3rd shell.
Valence electrons: those in the outermost shell; most reactive
Chemical reactions: normally involve just the valence electrons
8. Molecules: 2 or more atoms combined; may be for the same element or
different elements
9. Bonding patterns: Covalent: (non-polar) equal sharing of electrons between atoms
Polar covalent: an equal sharing of atoms;
Ionic: transfer of electrons from one atom to another; charge created
Hydrogen: attraction between atoms of different molecules (intramolecular bond)
Van der Waals: fluctuation of charges in large nonpolar molecules causing weak
attractions between molecules
10. Anions: ions that gain electrons
Cations: ions that lose electons
Example NaCl
11. Chemical equation: reactants on left, products on right, used with
chemical symbols. Example: 6CO2 +6H20± C6 H12 O6 +6 O2
Chemical equilibrium: chemical reactions in proceed in both directions
12. Properties of water:
Adhesion: ability of water to form bonds with many polar substances
Example: water coats the inside of a glass
Cohesion: ability of water to form hydrogen bonds with itself:
Example: water beading up on a waxed car
13. Aqueous solution: solution in which water is the solvent.
14. Solute: the material being dissolved
Solvent: the liquid that the solute is dissolving in
15. Diffusion: movement of molecules from higher concentration to a lower
concentration.
Osmosis: diffusion of water through a semi permeable membrane
16. Concentration gradient: diffusion pathway from high to low concentration
areas
17. Hydrophobic : nonpolar molecules do not mix with polar molecules (oil
and water;
Hydrophilic: polar molecules mixing with other polar compounds; materials dissolving in water
18. Acid: molecules producing H+ ions
Base: molecules producing OH – ions
19. pH: measure of the H+ ion content in solution; 7 is neutral ; below 7 is
acidic and above is basic
20. Buffer system: weak acids and bases can absorb or release H+ ions.
Example: carbonic acid (H2 CO3) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
21. Organic chemistry: deals with carbon containing compounds
22. Functional groups:
a. Alcohol: OH group; polar; forms hydrogen bonds
b. Amino: NH2 group; acts as a base; polar; forms hydrogen bonds; forms proteins
c. Carbonyl: CHO group; an aldehyde; used to produce sugars
d. Carboxyl: COOH group; organic acid
23. Carbohydrates: sugars and starches; CH2O; energy storage
24. Types of carbohydrates:
Monosaccharides: simple sugars with 5 or 6 carbons; (glucose, fructose, galactose.)
isomers; C6H12O6
Disaccharides: C12H22O11; double sugars; formed by combining 2
Monsaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose)
Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) (C6H10O5)nth; starch,
celllose; polymers;
25. Dehydration synthesis: occurs when joining two monomers and produces a molecule of H2O.
Hydrolysis: breakdown of large polymer into monomers; digestion; water
added to reaction
26. Monomer: glucose, amino acid
Polymer: starch, cellulose, protein
27. Lipids: have C, H, and O but fewer oxygen atoms than carbohydrates;
Dissolve in organic solvents but not in water Example: fats and oils
28. Saturated fatty acids: no double bonds; solid at room temperature
Unsaturated fatty acids: have at least one double bond; liquid at room temperature
29. Trigylceride: 3 fatty acids bonded to a molecule of glycerol
Glycerol: 3 carbon alcohol found in a molecule of fat
30. Sterols: lipids with 4 carbon rings; source of hormones; example:
Cholesterol
31. Protein formation: polymers of amino acids combined by dehydration
Synthesis
32. Amino acid structure: amino group, carboxyl group, central carbon
and an R group
33. Levels of protein organization:
Primary structure: specific sequence of amino acids
Secondary structure: folding of the amino cid chain due to hydrogen bonds between amino acids
Tertiary structure: additional folding due to interactions of R groups or
disulfide bonds
Quaternary structure: interactions of proteins from more than one
polypeptide chain
34. Denaturation: unfolding of protein from excess heat or change in pH
35. Enzyme: speed up chemical reactions; substrate combines with enzyme
to form an end product.
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